Types of culture of people as to how they uses plants in their society

Types of culture of people as to how they uses plants in their society

  Ethnobotany explores how people in different cultures use plants.

 People started planting for harvest about

 10,000 years ago.

§ wild species “tamed” through artificial selection

§farming requires people to stay in one place

§farming helped more socially complex centers develop

Overview

—The relationship between plants and people is profound, affecting nearly every aspect of our lives. From the prehistoric use of plants by hunter-gatherers to contemporary development of therapeutic agents derived from plant compounds, plants have, and will continue to influence the trajectory of human civilization. This research describes how a variety of traditional cultures use plants for food, medicine, in material culture and as part of their spiritual beliefs.

Coconut

—Coconut trees are palms that grow up to 30 meters high. Known as the 'tree of life' because of their huge variety of uses, they grow throughout the tropics.

—Versatile palm

     As with many palms, coconut palms are multipurpose plants. Their leaves are woven, matted, twisted or plaited to make clothing, mats, baskets & roofing ; their fruits provide food , drink , oil , medicine, containers, fiber for ropes and mats; and their wood helps build houses and boats.

—Sacred

    The coconut palm is also known as the tree which grants all wishes. The nuts are an essential part of Hindu religious ceremonies such as weddings. They symbolize complete usefulness, selfless service, prosperity and generosity. Coconuts feature in many South Asian mythological stories and legends.

—Strange but true

    coconut shells are used to make gas masks.

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—Coconut - spiritual

—In South Asia, coconuts are named sriphala or fruit of the gods and they symbolize complete usefulness, selfless service, prosperity and generosity. The palms are believed to be the embodiment of the ancient Indian concept of kalpavriksha, or the tree which grants all wishes. It plays an essential role in many religious and social functions in South Asia.

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—Coconuts are named 'fruit of the gods' in South Asia.

—The three 'eyes' of the coconut represent the three eyes of the great god. An earthen pot or pitcher, which  is filled with water and mango leaves and a coconut is placed on top. This pot is used in the ritual of worship of the gods. It is placed as a substitute for the deity or by the side of the deity.. It represents Mother Earth, the water the giver of life, the leaves life itself, and the coconut divine consciousness.

Fishing communities along the coasts of south asia   believe in appeasing the seas with offerings of coconut.

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—Coconut - traditional medicine

—Multipurpose plants in the true sense, coconut palms have been used to treat an extraordinary range of health problems. The seeds, roots and even flowers have been prepared into pastes, infusions and creams for Ayurvedic and other traditional South Asian medicine

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Other parts of the palm

—Other parts of the palm are also used in traditional South Asian medicine. Juice tapped from flowers stalks is given to cure fever and promote urination. Fresh juice mixed and heated together with rice flour is applied to gangrenous ulcers and skin boils, while fermented juice is taken as a laxative. The roots have been used for a host of ailments, including as an infusion for sore throat gargles. Coconut palm hearts are nourishing and are regarded as good for the digestion. To regulate menstruation, a paste made from grinding the hearts with molasses is eaten every day for several successive days. The fresh juices from the hearts are used against fevers.

Coconuts also feature in traditional medicines in other parts of the world. In Indo-China, the seeds are used as a treatment for skin and nasal ulcers.

Neem

—Neem has been labeled the wonder tree of the humid tropics. Many parts of the neem tree have antimicrobial properties. They provide effective ingredients for traditional and modern toothpastes, medicines, cosmetics and insect repellents in South Asia.

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—Insect repellent

—Neem insecticides are active against more than 200 different types of insects including head lice, fleas, locusts and mosquitoes.

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—Neem oil

—Most of the antimicrobial oil from neem seeds goes into soap in Asia. Seed oil is also used in shampoos and toothpastes. Today, seed oil is usually obtained using solvent extraction or large mechanical expellers, but some farmers still use traditional pressing methods.

Neem - spiritual

   Neem is deeply imbued with spiritual meaning. Its curative properties were attributed to the fact that a few drops of heavenly nectar fell upon it.

Ayurvedic texts

   It contains a chapter of verses on plant medicines. It recommends that the neem tree be planted near dwellings. The ancient south asians  believed that planting neem trees ensured a passage to heaven. Smallpox and chicken pox were cured or staved off with the use of neem leaves. It was believed that the gods lived in the neem tree.
Neem leaves on a branch, early 19th century.

—Regional beliefs

—Neem leaves are strung on thresholds to ward off evil spirits, brides take ritual baths in neem-infused water, smoke from the neem tree is wafted into rooms to cleanse them, in a ceremony babies are laid upon neem leaves to provide them with a protective aura, snake-cults are associated with the neem tree, these are but few of the myriad ways in which the tree makes its mark on the psyche of the sub-continent.

These are made in a pillar-like form with the face and body delineated but with no arms, and carved out of neem wood. The bitter neem leaves are chewed with some jaggery in the south asians.

—Neem - traditional medicine

—Neem has been widely valued for over 4000 years as a medicine in South Asia. Every part of it is used particularly to treat infections, skin conditions and reduce swellings. It is also used as a pesticide to protect food and other products from being eaten by insects and in cosmetics. Neem is often the subject of scientific experiments.

—sticks where they are believed to help clean teeth and kill bacteria.

—Neem bark has been used to treat a variety of conditions.

—Extracts of the bark and twigs have been used to treat fevers, thirst, sickness and vomiting. Fever is a symptom of many diseases including malaria. When neem was used to treat malaria it was often mixed with coriander and ginger. This mixture was believed to be more efficient than quinine, a compound from a South American tree that is a well-known treatment for malaria. The bark has also been used to prepare various medicines to treat jaundice, anorexia, dysentery and worms.

The leaves have been prescribed to aid the digestive system and to stimulate the liver. Infusions of the leaves were also used to treat lung conditions and to decrease levels of glucose in the blood of patients suffering from diabetes.

Turmeric 

—Turmeric is in the ginger family. Its rhizomes are the source of a bright yellow spice and dye.

—Spice mix

—Turmeric is a main ingredient of curry powder. The rhizomes are cooked, dried and then ground to produce the strongly colored, aromatic powder.

—A domesticated plant

—Turmeric is only known as a domesticated plant and not found in the wild. It originated from South and Southeast Asia, and may have been first used as a dye before it became a popular spice.

—Dyes

—As well as being a culinary spice, turmeric is a well known dye plant in South Asia. Its color varies depending on how it is processed. If mixed with alkaline fluids it turns bright red, but when mixed with acid it produces yellow.

—Anti-ageing

—Turmeric has traditionally been used to counteract many conditions including the ageing process in Ayurvedic medicine.

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—Turmeric - spiritual

—Yellow and yellow-orange are colors with sacred and auspicious connotations in the Indian subcontinent. Turmeric is important in Hindu and Buddhist ceremonies.

—Symbolism

—Turmeric is associated with fertility and prosperity, and brings good luck if applied to a bride's face and body, as part of the ritual purification before a wedding. Turmeric roots may be given as a present on special occasions, such as a visit to a pregnant woman. Turmeric powder is also sprinkled on sacred images. The use of turmeric is prohibited in a house of mourning.

—Turmeric is often applied to a bride's face and body as part of ritual purification during a wedding ceremony.

—Yellow and orange are both special colors in Hinduism, yellow being associated with Vishnu, and as the color of the space between chastity and sensuality. Orange signifies sacrifice and renunciation and courage. Originally associated with the sun and as part of solar symbolism, the colors were absorbed into the mythology of Hinduism.

Chakras in Hindu belief are mystical centers of orientation. Orange represents the sacral chakra and yellow represents the solar plexus chakra. This yogic concept is of the inner cosmology of a being discovered through meditative practice. It is best described in the tantras or texts important in Tantric Hinduism and Vajrayana Buddhism. In Buddhism yellow is the color of the Bodhisattva Ratnasambhava.

—Turmeric - traditional medicine

—Turmeric has been used for many conditions in traditional medicine in India, Pakistan and Bangladesh. The rhizome is generally the part of the plant that is most widely used. It can be prepared in various ways and is reputed to alleviate asthma and coughs. Many of its traditional uses are supported by scientific evidence.

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A hot water extract of the dried rhizome has been taken orally to slow lactation, to regulate fat metabolism, for diabetes, diarrhea, liver diseases and has been taken as a tonic and to calm the stomach. The fresh juice taken regularly on an empty stomach has been used to prevent stomach disorders. A hot water extract of the dried rhizome is regarded as having an abortion promoting effect when taken orally

—External applications

—Externally the dried rhizome has been applied to fresh wounds and to insect stings and to help the healing process in chickenpox and smallpox. Turmeric is also reported to give a good complexion to the skin and has been applied externally to remove hair and to act as a tonic, and to alleviate itching. Inhalation of turmeric smoke is reputed to relieve hiccups.

Use with other plants

—The rhizomes of turmeric have also been mixed with other plants to produce remedies for a range of conditions including tonsillitis, headaches, wounds, snake bites, stings, sprains and fractured bones.

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Sandalwood

—Sandalwood trees are the source of an attractive and fragrant wood. The wood is popular for wood carving, and is the source of sandal oil. The oil is valued for perfumery and incense. Sadly, the popularity of sandalwood has led to severe conservation problems.

—An uncertain future

—India accounts for 90% of world production of sandal oil, but production is declining as too many trees are cut down.

—A far-flung tree

—East Indian sandalwood and other species have also been harvested for their oil in Indonesia, Fiji and Australia. Overharvesting has been a common problem. The USA and France are two of the biggest importers.

—Not just a pretty face

—Sandalwood doesn't just smell nice. Scientific research has shown that the oil has soothing and anti-bacterial properties on the skin. It is added to hair oils and body lotions.

—Parasites

—Sandalwood trees are semi-parasitic - they tap into the nutrient supply of nearby plants. Some 300 species are known to have been parasitized by sandalwood.

—Sandalwood - spiritual

—Sandalwood incense is an integral part of Buddhist and Hindu practice. In Hindu temples, the air is usually suffused with incense and the smell of sandalwood, jasmine and turmeric.

—Religious rituals

—Liturgies and sacred rites are accompanied by offerings which are composed of the five elements: earth symbolized with sandalwood paste or ash; water with water, milk or coconut milk; fire with oil lamps or camphor; wind with incense; and ether with auspicious sounds. Incense from sandalwood is supposed to be calming and conducive to clarity of mind and is therefore preferred for meditation and to promote spiritual practice. It is particularly placed as a dot or tilak in the forehead between the eyebrows where Hindus believe power resides and can be awakened. The sandalwood dot is meant to cool and protect this spot.

—Fragrance

—The fragrance of the wood is long-lasting and sacred carvings are made from the wood and installed in temples and household shrines. It is burnt during death ceremonies to help the soul rise towards God, and to comfort mourners. People who could afford it in the sub-continent were cremated on sandalwood pyres, a practice which is rendered difficult today because of the rarity of the wood. It is a belief firmly entrenched that the fragrance of sandalwood is potent and can ward off evil spirits but also attract snakes. In Hindu mythology, the tree is entwined with serpents. It is frequently portrayed in the painting traditions of the sub-continent with snakes around it and has come to embody an ineffable sweetness that is unchanged by danger. Joss sticks waft its fragrance around Indian households to keep the rooms auspicious and welcoming of the gods and free of evil spirits.

—Sandalwood - traditional medicine

—The heartwood of the sandalwood tree, volatile oil from the wood and roots and the seeds are used as medicines.

—Ayurvedic medicine

—In Ayurvedic medicine the wood can be ground up with water to form a paste. The paste has a cooling effect on the body and can be applied to the foreheads of people with fevers. The paste is also sometimes mixed with coconut water and taken as a drink to decrease thirst. An infusion of sandalwood powder made with water or rose water is used to treat headaches, scorpion stings, dry skin, dermatitis, psoriasis, prickly heat and other inflammatory skin conditions. It has also been used to treat warts and forms of skin cancer. Clinical trials are being carried out to investigate this.

—This sandalwood is collected from Mysore was used as a medicine.

—The infusion has also been used as a deodorant and as a mouthwash to treat bad breath. Oil from the heartwood is used as a skin lotion to treat itching and inflammatory conditions.

Sandalwood is mixed with honey, sugar and rice-water to treat digestive disorders.
The oil can be added to candles or burnt as incense in rooms with patients that have mental health problems or are very stressed as the perfume has a calming effect. These calming properties probably explain why it has been used to aid meditation and prayer. It is reported to calm the mind, and soothe tension and anxiety. 

Henna

—Henna

—The leaves of the henna plant are the source of a red-brown dye widely used for body art, known as mehendhi in South Asia. First used in the Near East and South Asia, henna art is now popular around the world.

—Care!

—'Black henna' can lead to skin problems - it's best to stick to the real thing.

—Celebrations

—Body decorations are an important part of Hindu weddings and the Islamic festival of Eid al-fatr at the end of Ramadan. Henna symbolizes prosperity, fertility, happiness, fortune, seduction and beauty.

—Once upon a time...

—Although body art has a long history, henna use didn't become widespread until the Middle Ages. Claims that it was used in ancient Egypt or Bronze Age Europe are untrue. Its use as a body paint may have began in North Africa and the Middle East and from there it spread to South Asia.

—Perfume

—Henna flowers are the source of mehendhi oil, used for scenting hair an

—Henna - spiritual

—Henna is not a sacred plant in South Asia, but it does symbolize prosperity, fertility and happiness. It plays an essential role in the rites of womanhood and represents fortune, seduction and beauty. It is widely used in a variety of religious and ritualistic ceremonies in South Asia, particularly by Muslims.

—Mythology

—There are many myths surrounding the art of mehendi in Pakistan and India. Legend states that the goddess Parvati, wife of the great god Shiva, used it as a decoration in order to charm her husband away from his usual stance of brooding meditation.

Celebrations and symbolism

—Hands are covered with lacy, intricate henna patterns as part of the wedding ceremony.

—At weddings a bride's hands are decorated with henna. The bridegroom's name is frequently hidden in the lacy patterns. If he discovers his initials on the wedding night it will bring him luck, but if he does not, it signifies that the bride will dominate their relationship. It was also believed that the bride's mother-in-law would love her more the darker the dye was.

—Henna - traditional medicine

—Henna has been used in traditional medicine, wherever it is grown, to treat a vast number of ailments ranging from beriberi to burns and bruises

—In medicine

—Image: These partly fragmented henna leaves were acquired at the London drug market around 1898.

—Henna features in the Siddha system of medicine. Siddha physicians consider parts of henna to be astringent, detergent, deodorant, cooling and a sedative. Fresh leaves mixed with vinegar or lime juice are bandaged onto the soles of the feet to treat 'burning feet', a symptom of beriberi. Ground leaves are applied to sore joints to ease rheumatism. The juice of the plant can be applied to the skin for headaches, and the oil is applied to hair to prevent it from going grey.

Its flower oil relieves muscular pains, while its seeds are used as a deodorant and to regulate menstruation. Henna flowers induce sleep, cure headaches and bruises. Leprosy has been treated by henna bark, as well as by an extract of leaves, flowers and shoots. The bark has also been used to treat symptoms of jaundice and enlargement of the liver and spleen. It can be applied to the skin to treat eczema, scabies, fungal infections and burns.



Folk medicine

—In folk medicine, henna leaves are used as an ointment, decoction or tea. Henna leaves have been used in India to treat wounds, ulcers, mouth ulcers, bruises, sprains, swelling, burns, stomach pain caused by childbirth, sore throats, gonorrhoea, obesity, to promote menstruation and to induce abortion. Fruit oil is a folk remedy used in disorders causing hardening of the liver and diaphragm, and an ointment made from young fruit is used to prevent itching.

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Tea

—Tea

—Tea is a shrub, grown for a hot drink made from its leaves. Tea is appreciated both for its stimulant properties and health benefits, and as the centre of social rituals such as the Japanese tea ceremony and British teatime.

—Healthy living

—The last decade has seen huge interest in tea's medicinal properties. It is rich in antioxidant flavonoids and tannins which help protect against cancer and heart disease. Caffeine extracted from tea is added to some pain-relief medicines.

—Popularity

—Tea is the most important non-alcoholic beverage in the world. Over 3 million tons are grown annually.

—Black & green Tea

—For centuries it was thought that black and green tea came from different plants. In fact they come from the same species, but black tea is fermented.

—Fairtrade

—Overproduction of tea has led to falling tea prices and a poor wage for workers. Fairtrade teas pay suppliers a higher price and lead to better pay for workers. Consumers are beginning to favour fairtrade products.

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Tea in Britain

—By the early 1800s, Britain was drinking its way through 9 million cups of tea a year at the heyday of the East India Company. During this time, China was the only supplier of tea to the western world. But, following the revision of its charter in 1834, the East India Company's monopoly of the tea trade between China and Britain came to an end.

—Throughout the remainder of the nineteenth century and during the first half of the twentieth century until the outbreak of the Second World War, the area under tea in India, Sri Lanka (then called Ceylon) and the Dutch East Indies increased steadily. The tea produced was India black tea which was made in mechanized factories. The tea differed from the original China tea, being stronger in taste, deeper in color, richer in caffeine but having a less delicate flavour. It was probably because of these factors that the British habit of drinking tea with milk and sugar arose.

—Tea - traditional medicine

—The medicinal effects of tea have a history dating back almost 5000 years in China. The use of tea in traditional Chinese medicine is well-documented and it is suggested that it could be used as a cure for over 200 illnesses and symptoms! Tea is not an important medicine in the main medical traditions of South Asia.

—South Asian tea remedies

—The young, fresh leaves of the tea plant are picked, they can be used to treat a variety of disorders.

—Medicinally tea has been most used as a stimulant, or as an astringent lotion which may be used as a gargle or injection. An infusion of tea leaves was once used as a remedy for insect blights. An infusion of tea has been used for some digestive problems and to reduce sweating in fevers.

Rice

—Rice

—Rice is a staple food of South Asia and its cultivation is a major employer. A wide range of growing methods have evolved all over South Asia which easily matches its diverse range of uses as a food. There are some surprising facts about rice too, from cosmetics and crafts to medicines and mythology.

—Different methods of ricecultivation have evolved in different regions according to their climate and geography. A remarkable type known as 'deep-water rice' is grown in flood-prone Bangladesh.

—Golden rice

—Special varieties of 'golden rice' are being genetically modified so they contain chemicals that are claimed to reduce vitamin A deficiencies in developing countries. Some experts question its role.

—Annapurna

—Annapurna is the Hindu god of rice. Her name comes from the Sanskrit word for rice, anna. She is often depicted with a rice spoon in her hand.

—Rice - spiritual

—Rice is primarily a symbol of fertility and prosperity. Hindus particularly associate rice with Lakshmi, the goddess of wealth. Paddy stalks or unhusked paddy are worshipped as embodying the goddess.

—Rice and religion

—In peninsular India, there are numerous festivals connected with the sowing, planting and harvesting of rice. Major harvest festivals include Pongal in Tamil Nadu, Onam in Kerala, Huthri in Coorg (Kodagu). Rice, tinted with the auspicious yellow colour of turmeric, is showered onto newly-married couples, and is part of numerous rites and celebrations. It is offered to the deities and used as an oblation in the sacred fire of Hindu ritual.

—Rice is used in many Indian celebrations, including weddings.

—Rice features in many legends about the Buddha's life. In a famous tale, he was offered a bowl of milk and rice by a young woman named Sujata, which gave him renewed strength during his austerities in pursuit of Enlightenment. Sweetened rice thus forms part of offerings to the Buddha in Buddhist ceremonies.

Rice cooked in ghee or clarified butter is said to have been the favourite food of the Prophet Muhammad.

—Rice - traditional medicine

—The uses of rice in traditional medicine are closely interwoven with its use as a food. The main rice-products used as medicines are made from brown rice and rice oil from rice bran. Some of its traditional uses are supported by scientific studies.

—Rice remedies

—Rice can be used to treat skin conditions. The rice is boiled, drained and allowed to cool and mashed. The rice is made into a paste or molded into balls and these can be applied to boils, sores, swellings and skin blemishes.

Other herbs are sometimes added to the rice balls to increase their medicinal effects. Sticky glutinous rice is often taken to treat stomach upsets, heart-burn and indigestion. Extracts from brown rice have been used to treat breast and stomach cancer and warts. They have also been used to treat indigestion

Tamarind

—Tamarind is the seed pods from the tamarind tree. It is widely used to provide a sweet and tart flavour to savoury meat and vegetable dishes and in drinks and deserts in South Asia. India is the top producer, growing tamarind in orchard-like plantations for domestic use and export.

—Sweet and sour

—Tamarind is the brown, tart flesh from the pods of a tree in the pea and bean family. The flesh surrounds the brown shiny seeds within the sausage-shaped pod. Pods are harvested at different stages of maturity according to their intended use.

—Ice cream

—Extracts from tamarind seeds are used as a stabilizing agent in some ice creams.

—Immune booster

—Tamarind pods contain compounds which have recently been found to increase people's resistance to infections.

—Attractive artwork

—In Orissa, India, a gum is prepared from ground tamarind seeds and spread onto cloth to prepare a base for making traditional folk paintings. Tamarind plants are also used to make dyes, glue, polish carvings and buildings.

—There are many references to tamarind in Hindu mythology, often referring to its small leaflets or the tart taste of the fruit.

Night spirits

—The evergreen tree with its mass of feathery foliage has strong and supple branches and is highly wind-resistant. Its leaflets fold at night and it is believed to be the haunt of ghosts at this time. Sleeping underneath a tamarind tree is considered to be folly. This belief has possibly gained currency because the acidic nature of the tree makes the soil around it barren of other plants.

In south People avoid walking near tamarind trees in the dark. There are various popular stories which explain why the leaves are composed of many leaflets. These include the tale that the leaves were split by arrows shot by Lakshmana, a hero from the Hindu epic Ramayana which dates from about the 4th century BC. This proves that the tree has been known in South Asia for over two millennia.

—Tamarind fruits and leaves have been used in traditional South Asian medicine. Taken internally or applied externally, a range of conditions are treated including sore throats, sunstroke and stomach upsets. Some of these uses are mirrored by Western medicine.

—Tamarind remedies

—Tamarind seeds play a role in traditional medicine where they have been used as treatments for many illnesses including fevers and intestinal infections.

—Tamarind seeds are used traditionally to treat diabetes, fevers and intestinal infections. They are also used in the treatment of both diarrhoea and as a laxative. This activity could be associated with a group of protein compounds known as lectins that are present in tamarind.

The fruits are used to flavour drinks given to patients with fever. When prescribed in this way, the tamarind is often mixed with lime, honey, milk and spices.

Pulp from the seed pods is applied to painful joints and is mixed with salt and used as a gargle to treat sore throats. It is given to people who are suffering from sunstroke and those who have had too much alcohol to drink.